Climate Change & Food Industry

Climate change may affect food systems in several ways ranging from direct effects on crop production, to changes in markets, food prices and supply chain infrastructure.

There has been a dramatic increase in recent years in the public’s awareness of global climate change, reflecting increasing stridency from the scientific community as new and stronger evidence of climate change is revealed.

The Earth’s climate is constantly changing as a result of natural processes. The atmosphere has an effect like a greenhouse on the Earth’s temperature. The energy from the sun reaching the earth is balanced by the energy the Earth emits to space. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) trap some of the energy the Earth releases to space. The GHGs in the atmosphere act as a thermostat controlling the Earth’s climate. Without this natural greenhouse effect, the average temperature on Earth would be -18˚C instead of the current +15˚C. Therefore, life as we know it would be impossible.

The majority of the world’s scientists studying this topic agree that the current rate of climate change is faster than at any time in the last 10,000 years because of human activity. Human activities affect GHG levels by introducing new sources of emissions or by removing natural sinks, such as forests. Sources are processes or activities that release GHGs; sinks are processes, activities or mechanisms that remove GHGs.

Since the industrial revolution, concentrations of GHGs have been increasing steadily as a result of industrialization (increasing sources of emissions) and deforestation (declining sinks). Between 1970 and 2004 several key GHG emissions, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphurhexafluoride (SF6), increased by 70 percent. The scientific evidence for this is very solid. In its fourth assessment report since 1990, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that climate change is already happening and can be primarily attributed to human activity.

Global climate change will have substantial impacts on the environment including water resources, fisheries, forests, wildlife and ecosystems. Regional climate changes, particularly temperature increases, are already affecting different natural systems on all continents and in some oceans. Scientists also predict that climate change will increase climate variability.

Key Predictions

The impacts of global climate change on food systems are expected to be widespread, complex, geographically and temporally variable, and profoundly influenced by preexisting and emerging social and economic conditions.

Some of the key findings of a recent report by Universal Ecological Fund (Fundación Ecológica Universal FEU-US) make for interesting reading. FEU-US is a non-profit, non-governmental organization that seeks to increase awareness that encourages actions on sustainable development issues through researching, analyzing, producing and disseminating information.

Its report, “The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Production: A 2020 Perspective” notes the following:

1. The temperature of the planet would increase by, at least, 2.4ºC above pre-industrial times.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important man-made greenhouse gas. In 2008, CO2 levels reached 385.2 parts per million (ppm). With current increase rates of about 0.5 percent per year, CO2 levels could reach 410 ppm in the next decade. These levels correspond to greenhouse gases (GHGs) concentrations above 490 ppm CO2-equivalent (all greenhouse gases combined). This equals a 2.4ºC increase in global temperature above pre-industrial times.

2. Two of the three main elements of food production –water and climate— would be most affected by climate change.

Obtaining more land suitable for agricultural production is unlikely. It is therefore water availability (mainly in the form of rain, on which 80 percent of food production depends) and climate conditions, which would most significantly impact food production worldwide, with both positive and negative impacts.

3. The most significant impacts of climate change on food production would be on:

• The tropical region –the region between 30º N and S of the Equator—due to reduced water availability and increased temperatures.

• The temperate region –between 30º and 60º N and S—due to changes in precipitation.

4. Positive and negative impacts of climate change by region include:

• Africa: The region with the most severe expected impacts. About two-thirds of arable land in Africa is expected to be lost by 2025. Decreased rainfall would also impact yields from rain-fed agriculture, with estimations of up to 50 percent in some countries. A combination of increased temperature and rainfall changes would lengthen the growing season benefiting, for example, the production of Ethiopian coffee.

• Asia: The most serious potential threat arising from climate change in Asia is water scarcity. Central and South Asia would experience negative impacts, while the impacts on East and South-East Asia would be beneficial. The two most populated countries in the world would experience different impacts –India with negative impacts, and China with positive impacts.

• Europe: Climate-related increases in crop yields, of about 5 percent in wheat, are expected mainly in northern Europe; while the largest reductions of all crops, of up to 10 percent, are expected in the Mediterranean region.

• Latin America and the Caribbean: Overall yield production of wheat, rice, maize, and soybean is estimated to decrease by 2.5 to 5 percent. The impact of climate change in Latin America’s productive sectors is estimated to be a 1.3 percent reduction in the region’s GDP for an increase of 2°C in global temperature

• Northern America: Overall, decreased precipitation will create important problems for the United States, restricting the availability of water for irrigation and at the same time increasing water demand for irrigated agriculture. This would affect in particular the western region of the United States; some yield increases are expected in the Great Plains.

• Oceania: As a result of reduced precipitation, water security problems are very likely to intensify, and change land use away from drier areas. This would negatively affect Australia in particular, the major food producing country in the region.

5. The amount of food estimated to be produced in the next decade would not be enough to meet the food requirements of an additional 890 million people estimated to inhabit the world in the next decade.

• Global wheat production vs. demand: 14 percent deficit

Countries with expected increase in production: China, United States, Canada and

Argentina. Countries with expected decrease in production: India, Egypt, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Italy, Pakistan, France, Germany, Iran, Romania, Australia, Turkey, United Kingdom, Kazakhstan, Poland and Spain.

• Global rice production vs. demand: 11 percent deficit

Countries with expected increase in production: China, United States, Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Japan, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Republic of Korea, Lao Peoples Democratic Republic.

Countries with expected decrease in production: India, Brazil, Egypt, Nigeria, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Madagascar.

• Global maize production vs. demand: 9 percent deficit

Countries with expected increase in production: China, United States, Indonesia, Canada and Philippines.

Countries with expected decrease in production: India, Brazil, Egypt, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Italy, Argentina, France, Germany, Romania, South Africa, Mexico, Hungary and Serbia.

• Global soybean production vs. demand: 5 percent surplus

Countries with expected increase in production: China, United States, Indonesia, Brazil, Canada, Argentina, Vietnam, Japan, Serbia, Paraguay, Bolivia, Uruguay and Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

Countries with expected decrease in production: India, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Italy, Iran and South Africa.

6. As a result of decreased availability of food, prices could increase up to 20 percent. The inevitable consequence would be the increase in the share of hunger, which could reach one in every five people.

The current level of undernourishment in the world is 1 billion people –one in every seven is hungry today. Currently, about 6.5 million children under five die every year of malnutrition and hunger-related diseases –about 18,000 deaths a day.

Within the next decade, these figures could almost double, reaching one in every five people being hungry. At least every other newborn in Africa; one in every four newborns in Asia; and one in every seven newborns in Latin America and the Caribbean would be sentenced to undernourishment and malnutrition.

Impacts on the Agricultural Sector

Agriculture and fisheries are highly dependent on specific climate conditions. Trying to understand the overall effect of climate change on our food supply can be difficult. Increases in temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) can be beneficial for some crops in some places. But to realize these benefits, nutrient levels, soil moisture, water availability, and other conditions must also be met. Changes in the frequency and severity of droughts and floods could pose challenges for farmers and ranchers. Meanwhile, warmer water temperatures are likely to cause the habitat ranges of many fish and shellfish species to shift, which could disrupt ecosystems. Overall, climate change could make it more difficult to grow crops, raise animals, and catch fish in the same ways and same places as we have done in the past. The effects of climate change also need to be considered along with other evolving factors that affect agricultural production, such as changes in farming practices and technology.

As noted by Dr. Kim Chang-gil of the Korea Rural Economic Institute in a recent research paper, agricultural production is carried out through the selection of crops suitable for the climate of a specific region and application of proper farming methods. Therefore, agriculture is a climate dependent bio-industry with notable regional characteristics.

The publication “The Impact of Climate Change on the Agricultural Sector: Implications of the Agro‐Industry for Low Carbon, Green Growth Strategy and Roadmap for the East Asian Region,” was prepared as a background policy paper for the East Asia Low Carbon Green Growth Roadmap project with funding from the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA), under the East Asia Climate Partnership.

“Climate change disturbs the agricultural ecosystem, resulting in the change in agricultural climatic elements such as temperature, precipitation, and sunlight, while further influencing the arable, livestock, and hydrology sectors.”

First of all, the impacts of climate change on the arable and livestock sector are made known by biological changes including the change of flowering and harvesting seasons, quality change, and shift of areas suitable for cultivation. Climate change affects the agricultural ecosystem, giving rise to blights and pests and causing population movement and change in biodiversity. In the livestock sector, climate change brings about biological changes in areas such as fertilization and breeding and also affects the growing pattern of pastures.

Climate change affects the hydrology including underground water level, water temperature, river flow, and water quality of lakes and marshes, by impacting precipitation, evaporation, and soil moisture content. In particular, the increase of precipitation by climate change leads to an increase of outflow while the temperature rise increases evaporation, resulting in the reduction of outflow, Dr. Kim notes.

Negative impacts of global warming include reduced crop quantity and quality due to the reduced growth period following high levels of temperature rise; reduced sugar content, bad coloration, and reduced storage stability in fruits; increase of weeds, blights, and harmful insects in agricultural crops; reduced land fertility due to the accelerated decomposition of organic substances; and increased soil erosion due the increased rainfall.

In addition, each crop requires different climate and environmental conditions to grow. So, if climate change like temperature rise occurs, the boundary and suitable areas for cultivation move north and thus the main areas of production also change. The change in the main areas of production might be as a crisis for certain areas but might be an opportunity for other areas, so it cannot be classified either as a positive or as a negative impact.

“In sum, the impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector have ambivalent characteristics of positive impacts creating opportunities and of negative impacts with costs. Therefore, it is very important to formulate adaptation strategies that can maximize the opportunities and minimize the costs that will lead to sustainable agriculture development.”

Food Industry

Beyond the physical impacts of climate change lie a range of market risks and opportunities that are being driven by changing consumer preferences, supply chain demands and government policies – all in response to the challenge of climate change.

Consumers are becoming increasingly interested in the environmental credentials, amongst other things, of the food and beverage products they buy. This is consistent with a broad and global trend in which consumers are demanding higher standards of quality, transparency and accountability in food and beverage products. This trend can only continue.

As a consequence food-processing companies have to take the effects of emissions from their operations on climate into account.

This may be achieved by energy conservation and substitution of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources in the day-to-day running of their operations. In this context the ideas and concepts proffered here apply mainly to small and medium sized enterprises.

It is worth noting as well that investment in applications to achieve significant energy reduction requires speedy pay back as most companies now have to contend with cutthroat competition due to the financial crisis worldwide and indeed the continuing recession.

Climate change as a result of human activity further exacerbates the problem and now directly affects the development of existing and new food processing facilities. The renewal of existing facilities in energy conservation terms by ‘retro-fitting’ largely depends on what has gone before whereas the planning of new facilities in terms of location, construction design, utility requirements such as energy, water utilization / waste management and packaging recycling can be more strategically planned.

In dealing with the emerging issue of climate change and its potential negative consequences manufacturers have now to be much more proactive. Previously manufacturers that were proactive in the area of utility savings over the past 30 years did so primarily for economic or bottom line reasons.

What can be done?

As noted by Dr. Kim in his paper, in order to accomplish green growth in the agricultural sector, we should create an innovative way to turn inconvenience into a growth engine by leaving existing convenience and inertia behind, and by achieving a shift in thinking among relevant parties, to ensure that inconvenience and hazard can be properly managed.

“For this to happen, an amicable atmosphere should be created with a bold paradigm shift, where the suggestion of various ideas and active discussion can take place.”

 First of all, he notes, it is urgent that we come up with an implementation strategy that allows us to maintain the unique characteristics of agriculture as a green industry, and thereby eventually achieve green growth by actively developing public functions, such as atmospheric purification and environmental protection through agricultural production innovation and clean technology.

“It is particularly necessary to establish green governance where all farmers, relevant organizations and policy makers concerned can work together, where a strong will to implement green growth and an effective execution system are required to accomplish green growth. However, the policy to promote environmentally friendly agriculture itself is not enough to ensure an assured transition toward a low-carbon agricultural system, but reorganization of the overall agricultural system is needed.”

 Above all, agricultural policy and low-carbon environmental policy should be properly integrated so that the concept of green growth in the overall agricultural sector takes root. In order to maximize the policy effectiveness through a proper combination of policy instruments in various relevant sectors, a green innovation system should be established where policymakers, researchers, relevant organizations, farmers and other relevant bodies can have proper understanding of green growth and share their roles.

In addition to that, Dr. Kim observes that a systematic stage-by-stage strategy to develop technology should be devised and implemented on a steady basis so that green technology reduction or absorbing of greenhouse gases in the agricultural sector can be utilized as a growth engine.

“When green growth in the agricultural sector is successfully implemented, agriculture will solidify its position not only as a green industry that manages national land in an environmentally sustainable manner but also as a life industry that supplies safe agricultural products and manages national greenhouse gas emissions.”

As for the food industry, the key is to be prepared. The findings of a report: “Impact of Climate Change on Tasmania’s Food and Beverage Industry” prepared by Pitt & Sherry could equally hold for the food industry across the world.

It notes that the industry needs to be first aware of the likely consequences, physical and financial, of climate change.

“At a minimum, or as part of a risk assessment process, businesses should document their ‘carbon footprint’ and understand the extent to which that footprint creates risks and/or opportunities for their products. Assessing these risks and opportunities requires a market-by-market approach, particularly for exported produce.”

For those businesses with a low carbon footprint, or the ability to achieve this cost effectively, there may be market advantage in disclosing this information to consumers or supply chain partners. The attractiveness of this will depend in part on product positioning and the prospects for gaining market premiums.

“For all businesses, there is almost certainly advantage to be gained by reducing their greenhouse emissions to the greatest extent possible: the business case should consider not only direct exposures, such as energy and transport costs, but also supply chain linkages, future policy settings, market risks and corporate/brand positioning.

Where a high standard of proof is required – whether to meet market, legal or corporate expectations – full life cycle assessment of a product’s environmental characteristics may be justified. Despite the availability of software tools to assist with this process, it can involve significant costs. A risk-managed approach might therefore see such assessment reserved for products believed to possess above-average exposure or, conversely, potential to attract premiums. Assessments could be undertaken on behalf of a whole industry or product class by the relevant industry association.

As the information that such assessments will bring to light will also be valuable to governments, to help identify needs and opportunities for targeted assistance and/or investment promotion, there is a prima facie case for government support for this work. At the same time, businesses must remain accountable for determining their own response to climate change and accept the consequences should they choose not to engage actively in managing the issue, the report notes. 

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Public Transport policies in Korea

First published in The Hindu Business Line, July 25th 
Korea’s traffic policies, beginning with the reform of its public transportation system, and integrated use of information technology, has been acknowledged for its effectiveness and benchmarked by many other countries.

The transport network in Seoul is famed for its impressive standard of operational capacity and efficiency, and for incorporating the latest technology to make commuting convenient.

Before the public transport reforms of 2004, the bus system in Seoul faced severe problems as few people used it, leading to a deficit, that affected the quality of service. The reforms introduced an integrated operation system along with Bus Rapid Transit.

The government introduced what it calls a ‘quasi-public operation system’, under which it manages buses and routes that private companies own and operate, and reimburses bus companies on the basis of kilometres of service instead of operational revenue from passenger trips.

As observed by Lee Jae-joon, Associate Research Fellow, Korea Transport Institute, the most significant change, however, was the application of information technology in bus operations.

IT Innovation

The system than it is in place today enables real-time management of bus operation information and punctuality, and prevents reckless driving. In addition, the Transport Operation and Information Service (TOPIS) functions as a comprehensive traffic management center that gathers and processes all traffic information.

This enables buses to run at definite intervals. The installation of GPS devices on board allows traffic control centres to determine the real-time location of running buses. It helps avoid having buses on the same route running in groups.

“From the passengers’ point of view, it is an innovative service because they can expect buses to arrive within a definite time. Also, a communication system between traffic control centers and drivers was established for quick responses in the case of emergencies,” he noted.

With the rapid spread of smartphones, it is easy to access public transport information by using smartphones. Recently, heating systems were introduced at bus stops, keeping passengers waiting for a bus warm. In addition, ‘U-Shelters’, highly technology-intensive places, connecting IT and weather/air sensors, have been established.

Among other things, these shelters provide useful information on the local area and stores, weather and air quality as well as bus arrivals. There is an interactive kiosk, called ‘Digital View’, at almost every major bus stop and subway station. The kiosks are provided by Daum, a major Korean search portal. The screens display a subway map, a satellite map service, nearby attractions as well as news and entertainment content. It also has a VoIP service (voice over Internet Protocol).

In addition to the digital kiosks, there is a growing number of digital billboards, advertisements and commercial displays, many of which are interactive and touch-screen capable.

Another innovation is the introduction of the smart card system for electronic payment of public transport fares — bus, subway, taxi, etc — and charges for facilities such as parking lots.

The card creates benefits, such as the reduction in waiting time at bus stops and transparent accounting of bus operations. More importantly, as Lee points out, along with the bus reforms, Seoul has an integrated public transport system for subways and buses. Under this new system, fares are based only on distance travelled, regardless of the transport mode

Integrated system

Besides the capital, Seoul, there is also a national integrated transport system that improves the efficiency, integration and connectivity of the network. All expressways in Korea (total length 3,906 km) are equipped with a variety of Integrated Transportation System (ITS) services, including traffic management, public transport service, electronic payment, traffic control centers and traffic information.

ITS currently provides a basic information broadcasting service, incident management service, and freeway traffic flow control service. The traffic management service collects data from roads and running vehicles, controls the traffic flow, and provides travelers with traffic information. Based on real-time information, road users can make a decision on the choice of route to their destinations, alleviating traffic congestion and increasing average speeds.

The automatic traffic enforcement service encourages lawful driving and monitors traffic light violations, speed limit violations, illegal parking, overloading, and bus-only lane violations.

Korea has also introduced an electronic toll collection system, Hi-Pass, which allows drivers to pay highway tolls without stopping. This has been a boon for drivers while improving the efficiency of toll collection.

The Hi-Pass system has been installed at 344 tollgates in South Korea. Currently, 5.6 million vehicles — 50.8 per cent of registered cars — use the non-stop toll payment system.

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Korea: Speeding on the IT, communications superhighway

First published in The Hindu Business Line, July 25th
Korea has one of the world’s most active telecommunications and information technology markets backed by strong support from the Government.

No surprise that Korea was ranked No. 1 among 152 countries surveyed in the ICT Development Index of the International Telecommunication Union in end-2012.

The data rank Korea as the world’s most advanced ICT economy for the sixth year in a row followed by Sweden, Denmark, Iceland and Finland. The index is aimed at assessing ICT development routes, digital gaps and growth potentials of each country. The ranking is proof of the Korean Government’s efforts over the years to improve its regulatory environment and to promote policies to advance IT infrastructure.

Korea is one of the fastest growing ICT markets globally with advanced infrastructure and active consumers who adopt new technologies and products quickly. ICT accounts for 17 per cent of Korea’s GDP and 40 per cent of its total exports. The country ranks among the top countries in Internet usage. More than 80 per cent of the population uses the Internet. Practically everyone has a mobile phone and 95 per cent of the households subscribe to broadband Internet.

Today, ICT has changed the way Koreans live. A mobile handset is an essential. All model houses are wired and come with broadband Internet connection. Korean companies, with the support of the Government, are slowly strengthening their position in the global market and consolidating their market share.

Telecom

The telecom market in Korea is fascinating because it is a world mobile leader on many fronts. Korean mobile operators are among the first in the world to offer third- and fourth-generation services. Even as the rest of world is struggling to deploy 3G networks, plans are now on to roll out upgraded 4G services by the second half of the year. Dubbed LTE-A, the new network will offer a significant upgrade from the fourth-generation LTE and will be the first time that a wireless network exceeds the optic local area network (LAN) in data transmission speed.

Korea continues to be a booming mobile market as it innovatively explores the options for value-added services. The market passed the 105 per cent penetration rate mark in 2011, which means many individuals carry more than one mobile phone. According to the latest data, the number of 4G (Long Term Evolution-LTE) smartphone users has surpassed 21 millionand is likely to reach the 32-million level by the year end. This accounts for close to 40 per cent of the total mobile subscribers in the country, and in a country where four out of 10 people use smartphones, the mobile carriers are ramping up efforts to claim a bigger share of the fast growing market.

It helps that Koreans have a fetish for changing their mobile phones every six months. In fact, the country was positioned at the top in terms of mobile phone replacement rate, according to a survey by Strategy Analytics that was conducted in 88 countries worldwide.

Broadband

Where many countries are being challenged with the tasks of improving and making good use of ICT, Korea is known for its rapid and extensive deployment of broadband. The country’s success is due to the far-sighted government initiatives, where strategies put in place are mindful of the point that ICT infrastructure development must be accompanied by investments in the eco-system.

The extensive role of the government in creating demand in broadband through policies is considered as the most remarkable characteristic of Korea’s broadband growth, according to Ahn Jung-mihn of Hallym University,

“The strong bureaucratic approach in the beginning changed to a light-handed approach as the government invited more private sectors participants,” he pointed out.

To build up critical mass, the government initially pushed for an extremely low price for the public sector and free Internet service for schools. The result was a strong pick-up in information technology by the general public in tandem with the education policy.

Market demand further spurred service providers to offer lower prices along with ICT literacy drive across the entire population.

Currently, Koreans have many technology options for broadband in most areas of the country. The most popular connection technology is XDSL followed by Cable connections, LAN and wireless technologies. This strong inter-modal competition has brought down prices and introduced technologies that can serve remote areas. As telecom drove a positive impact on national competitiveness, the government recognized the future needs of a ubiquitous network and more management strategy.

“This interest was reflected in the IT839 Strategy, which is deemed as the most significant strategy in Korea’s overall broadband policy. Under this policy, eight new IT services were introduced to encourage investment in three key network infrastructures that, in turn, promoted the development of nine new growth engines,” noted Prof Dong Hee-shin, Department of Interaction Science, Sungkyunkwan University.

Having completed the first two phases successfully, the government established the ‘Plan for Developing and Promoting Giga-Internet’ that will enable users transmit data at an average speed of 1 gigabyte per second (GBp) through fixed-line connections and maintain a rate of 10 megabytes per second (MBps) on wireless connections, by this year.

Information Technology

The strength of the Korean IT industry has emerged from foresight, product development, and marketing by Korean companies, along with close cooperation with the government. Business government collaboration targeted promising areas for investment and policy support, noted Lee Chi-ho, Senior Research Fellow, Samsung Economic Research Institute.

Anticipating huge growth in LCD panels, Korean firms made massive investments that gave them a strong position when the panel market was ready to take off. Such investments made it easier for Korean firms to rapidly gain ground, in contrast to analog TV, where Korean firms lagged behind their entrenched Japanese counterparts.

By betting heavily on digital TVs, Korean firms were able to outflank their competitors, and exploit the transition to digital broadcasting. The Korean IT industry also focused on large screens and lower operating costs by aggressively investing in LCD panel production facilities. This gave Korean firms an advantage against Japanese companies, who initially focused on high-end, high-definition TVs that failed to reach global consumers. “In semi-conductors, Korean chipmakers raced ahead of their rivals by sustained investment even during contractions in the IT business. Through strenuous efforts to improve production and increase output, Korean companies were able to take the lead in semiconductor miniaturization and price competitiveness.”

In addition, shortened product development cycles and innovations in supply chain management gave Korean makers the flexibility to respond to sudden market changes. Above all, Korean companies developed brand power in emerging economies through diverse marketing and social contributions.

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Cost of living for students in Korea

First published in The Hindu Business Line, July 25th 
South Korea is increasingly seeing international students flocking to its universities for undergraduate, graduate and research programs. There are about 400 national and private universities, some of which have research facilities in several emerging scientific fields.

With many scholarship options available, more Indian students are choosing to study in Korea and the community is slowly increasing in size.

While most choose universities in Seoul, there are also a few who consider other reputed organizations in Daejon, Gyeonggi Province, and Busan.

If you have got admission to a university in Seoul, undoubtedly the first question that pops up in your mind would be the cost of living. While it is true that Seoul is an expensive city, it is still cheaper than most popular student destinations in Europe, Australia and South-East Asia.

Accommodation options

It is ideal to be able to stay on campus in a dormitory, which most scholarships provide for. However, one may also explore options of living outside the campus in a one-room flat or boarding house for students, which will cost more.

While the monthly rent for a 900 sq. ft. furnished apartment in an expensive area of the city is around 2.5 million KRW (1$=1,100 KRW) with a deposit of 10 million KRW, smaller accommodation near universities that cater to students is much cheaper. On a sharing basis, you might have to shell out 300,000-500,000 KRW per month with a deposit of 5 million KRW. Utility bills — gas, electricity, Internet — will put you back by an additional 60,000-100,000 KRW.

Quick public transport

South Korea has a well-developed public transport system with a metro and bus system that is convenient and quick. The basic fare on public transport is 1,150 KRW, and Taxi is 2,400 KRW. It is best to get a travel card (T-card).

Most Korean food is non-vegetarian but one can also find vegetarian food, other international food, fast food as well as Indian restaurants. University campuses have canteens at reasonable rates. Simple Korean meals in small restaurants will cost you around 6,000-10,000 KRW. The University cafeteria may charge you 2,500-3,000 KRW.

Fancier meals may cost about 20,000 KRW and if you are a coffee addict you will have to spend 4,000-5,000 KRW more.

In bars, a bottle of beer is 7,000 KRW and a cocktail is about 10,000 KRW. The cheaper option is buy your beer at convenience stores, where a Korean beer will cost around 1,500 KRW, and imported beer will be double the cost.

Grocery prices

As in most developed countries, the price of daily commodities is high compared to India. If you plan on doing your own cooking, vegetables prices are seasonal but can be expensive depending on the place of sale.

Here’s a quick rundown of the prices of some basic items. A loaf of bread costs 2,500 KRW; a litre of milk: 2,800 KRW; a dozen eggs: 3,500 KRW; 1 kg tomatoes: 8,000 KRW; 1 kg potatoes: 3,000 KRW.

Toothpaste costs around 3000 KRW; shampoo: 7,000 KRW; 1 box of 32 tampons 10,000 KRW, deodorant: 7,000 KRW (very hard to get since Koreans hardly sweat and do not use deodorants);a men's haircut: 10-15000 KRW. Traditional barbershops are cheaper at 6,000 KRW, but are now getting extinct.

A movie ticket on weekends will put you back by 9,000 KRW. But there are many affordable options to sightsee and spend your holidays.

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Indian investments in Korea: A wealth of opportunity

First published in The Hindu Business Line, July 25th
Sandwiched between China and Japan, Korea somehow has escaped the sweep of Indian businesses seeking to expand in East Asia. The ‘Look East’ policy seems to somehow overlook the most stable economy in the region.

In the last fiscal, Indian direct investment in Korea, as tracked by the Reserve Bank of India, amounted to only $3.51 million. In comparison, investments in China were pegged at $66.68 million and in Japan at $19.21 million.

In other words, the data on Indian ODI show that investments in Korea were just 3.93 per cent of the total investments in the Big-3 East Asian economies, even three years after the signing of the India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), a de facto free trade agreement.

It was widely anticipated that the CEPA that came into effect in January 2010 would lead to more Indian investments in Korea. Seoul has abolished the import tariff of 93 per cent on Indian imports and India has done the same on 75 per cent of Korean imports. Besides, the agreement sought to increase the interactive trade account as it includes investment in various sectors such as goods, services and even intellectual property.

While bilateral trade has comparatively improved (with a target of $30 billion by 2014), few Indian companies have used the deal to make inroads into the Korean market.

To date, the cumulative investment is estimated to be a little over $1 billion, with most of it hardly having any connection to the CEPA. Among the noticeable investors are Tata Motors (which acquired Daewoo Commercial Vehicle in 2004), Novelis Inc., a subsidiary of Hindalco Industries Ltd (which acquired Alcan Taihan Aluminum Limited in January 2005) and Mahindra and Mahindra (which acquired Ssangyong Motors in March 2011). Nakhoda Ltd. and Creative are the other smaller investors.

While Indian software companies such as TCS, Wipro and L&T Infotech have a small presence in Korea (with representative offices), they have not made any large commitments.

The only noticeable change in the past three years is the influx of professional workers, such as computer programmers and engineers, and a few English language instructors. Under the CEPA, 163 such professions are allowed access to the Korean services market. While a few years ago, it was difficult to spot Indians on the streets; today, it is not an uncommon sight.

Does it mean that Korea does not offer any potential for Indian businesses? On the contrary, as an FDI destination, the nation has several strengths compared to China and Japan.

As noted by Dr Ahn Choong-yong, Foreign Investment Ombudsman, KOTRA, in recent years Korea has emerged one of the prime investment locations in the Asia-Pacific region.

Its strong economic growth, increasingly favorable business environment, and rapid transformation into a truly knowledge-based information society have contributed to the creation of a wealth of investment opportunities.

It is also most active in pursuing FTAs with large economic blocs. Korea has already struck a deal with European Union, the US and ASEAN. These are helping foreign investors based in Korea to do business more effectively in the world market.

Also, among Korea's greatest strengths are its excellent pool of human resources and its optimal business environment.

To fulfill their globalization objectives, major multinational corporations also recognize Korea as an ideal destination for their production, logistics and R&D base.

Business operating costs in Korea are competitive due to the country's advanced IT infrastructure and low overhead costs including electricity and water. In particular, the basic monthly charge for Internet use in Korea is approximately a tenth that in China. Moreover, rental costs in Korea are also lower than in China, Singapore and Hong Kong.

In terms of tax rate comparisons, both corporate and income-tax rates in Korea are higher than in Singapore and Hong Kong, but lower than in Japan and China.

Recently, the World Bank ranked Korea No 8 (among 185 countries) in its Ease of Doing Business category for 2012.

This sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for entrepreneurs to open and run a business when complying with relevant regulations.

It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting 11 areas in the lifecycle of a business: Starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, resolving insolvency, and employing workers.

It makes much better sense to identify appropriate industries and then invest in Korea rather than following the bandwagon to China.

Many sectors provide ample opportunities for Indian investments.

Indian suppliers with products that have eliminated or lower tariffs from the CEPA should actively look for business with Korean partners.

Indian buyers should also keep in mind that they can obtain high quality Korean goods at a better price through the tariff reduction. Financial and legal services, auto-parts, food, pharmaceuticals, fashion and textiles, and IT are just some of the areas Indian businesses should start considering.

Korea is seen as a stable springboard to jump into East Asia, and Indian businesses should not miss it.

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Korean investments in India: Growing, but at a slow pace

First published in The Hindu Business Line, July 25th
Large Korean brands are household names in India and their strength has grown in the years since they first started operations.

However, the fact remains that Korean FDI inflows have been growing at a very tardy pace, and companies seem to be keener to explore other emerging markets.

Many Korean companies were the first movers as FDI investors in India, following the spate of reforms and liberalization since 1991. They started to invest by forming joint ventures with local companies or established wholly owned subsidiaries, predominantly in automobiles and white consumer goods. With clever business models, they managed to make deep inroads into the Indian market, in a relatively short period of time, led by technology giants Samsung Electronics, LG Electronics, and Hyundai Motor.

More recently Lotte Group, Doosan Heavy Industries and POSCO have become familiar names in the Indian business lexicon. As of today, there are officially 603 large and small Korean firms, which have offices in India.

It may come as a surprise, therefore, that India figures quite low on the list of favored investment destinations for Korean companies, with a rank of 16 worldwide.

According to the latest foreign investment statistics published by Exim Bank Korea, till end-2012, total Korean investments in India amounted to just 1.25 per cent ($2.67 billion of their $215 billion overseas investments).

In comparison, across the Asian countries, the Korean companies have pumped in $39.67 billion in China, $14.18 billion in Hong Kong, $8.38 billion in Vietnam, $6.73 billion in Indonesia and $4.65 billion in Singapore, $3.95 billion in Malaysia and $3.81 billion in Japan.

Looking at it from India’s point of view, the latest available analysis of FDI equity inflows from April-2000 to end-February 2013, by the Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion shows that Korea ranks 13th with $1.22 billion, which represents 0.64 per cent of the cumulative inflows received.

The top sectors that attracted FDI equity inflows from Korea are: metallurgical industries (26 per cent); prime mover- other than electrical generators (10 per cent); machine tools (8 per cent); automobile industry (7 per cent); and electronics (6 per cent).

Among the companies that invested, POSCO tops the list for this period, followed by Hyundai Mobis, Mirae Asset Investment Management, Samsung Electronics, Doosan Heavy Industries, Korea Western Power, Hyundai Heavy Industries, Lotte Confectionery and Lanco Intratech.

INDUSTRIAL ZONE

In the next few years, more investments are likely in the exclusive Korean Industrial Zone that will soon come up in the Neemrana region of Alwar district in Rajasthan. The 250-acre zone is seeking to attract Korean entrepreneurs and facilitate technology transfer between the nations.

A memorandum of understanding was signed between the Rajasthan Industrial Development and Investment Corporation (RIICO) and the South Korean Trade Promotion Agency (KOTRA) in March. But it remains to be seen how the project progresses before drawing any conclusions.

As can be seen from the table, Korean investment has indeed perked up during the last two years, but is still way below potential. The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), in force since January 2010, has not really been effective in attracting large-scale investments into the country, as desired.

Some experts argue that it is too early to draw any conclusion on the effect of CEPA in attracting Korean investments, and it could also be because of the global economic downturn and problems in the European Union.

As noted by Dr Cho Choong-jae, Head of India-South Asia Division at Korea Institute of International Economic Policy, for the most part, Korean companies are satisfied with their growth in India, and positive concerning prospects for growth in the next three years.

WAGE FACTOR

A survey conducted by his institute among Korean companies based in India showed that entering and gaining access to India’s domestic market constituted the biggest motivation for Korean manufacturing companies in India. Particularly since wages were lower than those in China, but comparable to Indonesia and only slightly higher than in Vietnam.

Entry into India’s domestic market was also the prime-motivating factor in investments by Korean non-manufacturing firms, in addition to expanding their presence in the subcontinent.

“It is, however, a fact that foreign firms continue to face many non-tariff barriers in India and unless the situation improves, there will be very little motivation for other companies to seriously consider India as an investment location.”

PROBLEMS

As he points out, India’s FDI policy has been one of gradual opening up. Much of the increase in FDI inflows is in the services sector. However, FDI inflows from Korea have been mostly in the manufacturing industries.

The main irritants are, of course, poor infrastructure, corruption, labour management, taxes, administrative services, fluctuating government policies at the central and state levels, political intervention, customs and clearance procedures.

In the words of Dr Lee Soon-chul, Assistant Professor at Busan University of Foreign Studies, “many recent policies of the Indian government have confused foreign investors.”

He was referring to the delay in opening of the retail sector, telecom policy flip-flops and retroactive taxation of foreign firms that have invested in India.

Such uncertain policies have made investors opt for divestment or to delay their planned investment.

There have been many instances of Korean companies sending a few executives to India for a couple of months to scout for opportunities, but then giving up in despair because of the red tape and corruption.

A senior executive of a large construction conglomerate in Korea, who did not want to be named, confessed that he spent six months in New Delhi last year, along with a few colleagues, trying to negotiate government infrastructure projects with an Indian partner. However, the large scale corruption and lack of transparency made them shift focus to Vietnam.

“The licensing and inspection costs are very high. Additionally, cumbersome bureaucratic procedures, the lack of government accountability and a congested judicial system where cases can linger on for several years, made my company change its mind. The Indian government does not walk the talk.”

There are also other barriers such as problems of land acquisition at the stage of investment implementation, due to the opposition of local residents. Many Korean companies realized that if a big company like POSCO can face difficulties, despite government assurances, it would be even tougher for smaller companies to survive in India.

Dr Choi Ho-sang, Research Fellow at the Korea Center for International Finance, in a recent article, observes that the reason FDI in India has been sluggish is that foreign capital regulations have not been relaxed sufficiently.

“The second UPA administration, which came into power in 2009, set the relaxation of regulations as one of its major policies in order to attract foreign capital. Foreign investors welcomed the new policy with great expectations, but when foreign capital regulations were not relaxed as had been promised, the expected increase in foreign investment did not happen either.”

“Moreover, the protectionist labour laws, complex tax system, and inadequate infrastructure such as roads and electricity, all render India a less attractive investment outlet compared with other Asian countries,” Dr Choi said.

Unlike most other countries, the Indian government does not provide attractive incentives to foreign companies entering the market.

For instance, the Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC), aimed at the development of futuristic industrial cities in India, can compete with the best manufacturing and investment destinations in the world and is expected to attract huge FDI inflows. Ordinarily, Korean investors would jump at such an opportunity. However, no special incentives are being offered to foreign investors under this initiative.

The implementation of genuine and operational policies of opening up to foreign capital is the key to sustaining investment growth.

OPPORTUNITIES

India’s booming knowledge-based service industry complements the hardware and manufacturing-based economic structure of Korea. India’s capabilities in pharmaceutical industry, IT software and auto components usefully complement Korean competence in heavy engineering, automobiles, machinery and electronic hardware. There is also potential for bilateral cooperation in India’s CDMA service, high speed Internet and e-governance.

As noted by Indian Ambassador to South Korea Vishnu Prakash, “the synergies inherent in the complementarities of the two economies can be harnessed for mutual benefit by the business and industry of the two countries. The expansion in trade and investment flows would create demand for related infrastructure and other supporting socio-economic services.”

Opportunities for expanding business cooperation exist in engineering, design engineering and construction services. Then there is the power sector and India’s plans to enhance civil nuclear power generation capacity.

The economies of India and Korea are highly complementary in terms of factor endowment, capabilities and specialization. If the investment barriers are effectively tackled, India’s cost-effective human resources may complement growing labour scarcity and rising wages in Korea, and a number of companies may consider India as an ideal destination for their relocation or global sourcing.

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Interview: Dr. Ad Juriaanse, Managing Director and Dr. Liz Kamei, Vice President of business development for Asia Pacific, NIZO Food Research

Dr. Ad Juriaanse did a PhD in Biochemistry. He worked for 14 years for Unilever in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom in different positions in both R&D and operating companies.  Since 1995 he is managing director of NIZO food research.

Dr. Liz Kamei obtained her PhD in biochemistry in the UK and then went to work as a research scientist for Kirin Breweries, a Japanese beverage company. She transferred to Gunma University where she worked as associate professor in the Faculty of Engineering before returning to a business position in the UK. Liz has worked in business development and open innovation roles, mainly focusing on the Asian-Pacific food & beverage markets.

She is fluent in Japanese and is currently learning Korean with the aim of creating good working relationships with our friends in the Korean food & beverage industry. At NIZO, she is the Vice President of business development for Asia Pacific.

Ad: It is a pleasure to speak about NIZO and our aspirations for developing our business within Korea. It is my role to oversee NIZO’s activities on a global basis, and Liz is leading our business activities in Asia-Pacific. I am inviting Liz to comment in this interview as it is our hope that our friends in Korea will see her as the point of contact for NIZO and will reach out to her to discuss their innovation ambitions and objectives.

What are the key objectives of NIZO this year, in terms of expanding operations?

Ad: Our overall objective is to carry on being relevant to the global food industry by maintaining our cutting edge capabilities and evolving as an organization so that we are always a key part of food innovation networks. Liz, what do you have to say about our activities in Asia-Pacific?

Liz: Our ambition for Asia Pacific is to really understand the innovation needs of our current and potential partners and provide the best match of NIZO expertise to meet those needs. That expertise might be flavour, texture, gut health food safety or process optimization – it depends on the needs of the client. My personal aim is to act as an initiator of relationships that lead to co-creation and breakthrough innovations.

 What are the competitive advantages that NIZO offers?

Ad: NIZO is an independent research company that assists the food industry with their innovations and optimizations on a project basis giving maximum flexibility to the client. We are convinced that good food needs good science and that can be achieved by working together intimately with our clients on those things that are relevant to their business.  As a hub of food science expertise, working with NIZO gives our clients access to the latest science and technology. We believe it is important to stress that IP generated during projects belongs to the client.

Our experts have a variety of backgrounds - both academic and industrial – and they understand the needs of industry. In addition, our understanding and expertise has grown as a result of the many successful projects carried out for food and ingredient companies over our 65 year history.  Thus, NIZO also serves as an excellent gateway to the European markets.

Liz: I would emphasize the fact that our scientists have a broad range of experiences gained from different organizations. As you may know, innovation happens when a diverse set of skills and experiences are brought together to create something new. In addition, our scientists all have their own personal networks into industry and academia – they span the boundaries of our organization – and that also amplifies the opportunities to innovate. This really illustrates the importance of being part of diverse networks –and it is something that is not easy to replicate in other organizations.

What are your plans for operation in Korea?

Ad: Liz has the overview of our ideas for Korea, so I will let her answer.

Liz: We realize the importance of building the business relationship and understanding our client’s needs and ways of working. We welcome the opportunity to learn how to best work with you.

We are considering opportunities in the near future (2014)  to take NIZO experts to Korea and to run one of the well-respected NIZO technical courses. This will be a learning opportunity for NIZO, and a chance for potential clients to interact with our experts and learn about NIZO. Our experts are of course available for consultancies, depending on the needs of Foodpolis in general and specific companies in particular. We welcome the chance to discuss potential opportunities with our friends in Korea.

Any thoughts on FOODPOLIS, the Korean government initiative to develop the food industry in Northeast Asia?

Liz: The incredible progress made by Korea in other technical fields is well known and we expect that this initiative will be backed by the same dedication and energy. We are excited by the future of Foodpolis.

Ad: All I can add is that we are delighted to be invited to attend the 3rd International Food Cluster Forum and have the chance to visit the site of Foodpolis.

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Water Challenges for the Food Industry

The role of the food industry in helping consumers eat healthily and sustainably has been receiving considerable attention in recent years. There are many challenges the industry faces, in securing the future supply of food –water being among the most important.

The United Nations has declared 2013 the International Year of Water Cooperation. The objective is to raise awareness, both on the potential for increased cooperation, and on the challenges facing water management in light of the increased demand for water access, allocation and services.

The year will highlight the history of successful water cooperation, as well as identify issues on education, diplomacy, trans boundary water management, financing, national and international legal frameworks, and linkages with the Millennium Development Goals. It also will provide an opportunity to capitalize on the momentum created at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), and to support the formulation of new objectives that will contribute towards developing water resources that are truly sustainable.

Water, a vital resource unlike any other knows no borders. But for perhaps the first time in history, global demand may outstrip supply. The world’s population is around 7 billion people and by 2050 it may well grow to 9 billion. And by that time, 70% of the people will be urbanized. Cities may take less than 1% of the land, but they can take up to 20% of the water. As rapid urbanization, climate change and growing food needs put ever-increasing pressure on freshwater resources; the objective of the year is to draw attention to the benefits of cooperation in water management. It will serve to highlight successful examples of water cooperation and explore key issues, including water diplomacy, trans-boundary water management and financial cooperation.

The potential for water cooperation is great and its benefits, whether in economic, social or environmental terms, are considerable. All water systems are extremely complex, be they management systems at the local or national level, internationally shared river basins or parts of the natural hydrological cycle. Managing these systems requires multiple actors, from users and managers to experts from various disciplines and decision-makers.

Cooperation is crucial not only to ensure the sustainable and equitable distribution of water but also to foster and maintain peaceful relations within and among communities. At the government level, different ministries can cooperate and mainstream awareness on water management into other sectors; at the community level users can cooperate through water users’ associations; at the trans boundary level joint management institutions can help to distribute and protect shared resources; and at the international level the various UN agencies can work together to promote the sustainable management of water worldwide.

Cooperation mechanisms vary in terms of decision-making structures, levels of participation and rules and regulations. They can take the form of informal agreements or formal institutions, and they range from a simple exchange of information to joint management mechanisms.

While governments the world over are geared up to meet the water challenges, what about the corporate sector?

Water in Industrial Use

Agriculture at present uses the lion's share of water worldwide, with between 70% and 90% of all water in most regions. As noted by Dr Ania Grobicki, Executive Secretary of the Global Water Partnership, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, in her study on ‘The Future of Water Use in Industry,’ interestingly, the East Asia/Pacific region and sub-Saharan Africa are the two exceptions to this, with industrial water use taking a large proportion of water, but for opposite reasons: in East Asia/Pacific, industry has grown extremely rapidly and often unsustainably in recent years. Industry now provides 48% of the total GDP in the region, and this proportion is still increasing.

On the other hand, in sub-Saharan Africa, industry takes a large share of total water use not because the industrial sector is especially strong, but because most agriculture is rain-fed and there is relatively little water storage available on the continent.

A 2010 report titled Direct and Indirect Water Withdrawals for U.S. Industrial Sectors, published by Carnegie Mellon University, has segmented water usage by industry sector, taking into consideration both direct water usage (bringing water into a manufacturing facility) and indirect water usage (when a manufacturing facility is buying items from the supply chain that were manufactured by someone else using water).

The findings show that in terms of direct water usage, the agriculture and power-generation industries together are responsible for 90 percent of direct water withdrawals. However, a majority of water usage (about 60 percent) is indirect and more than 96 percent of industry sectors use more water indirectly in their supply chains.

Fruit & Vegetable Farming

According to the report, while meat farming is often targeted as an energy- and carbon-intensive sector, it shows up lower on the list in terms of water use per dollar of economic output than fruit, grain and vegetable farming. Thirsty cash crops like wheat, corn, rice, cotton and sugarcane lead the pack in water usage.

Power Generation

Water is used at almost every stage of energy production, including pumping crude oil, removing pollutants from power plant exhaust, generating steam to run turbines, washing away residue after fossil fuels are burned and keeping power plants cool. Within the energy industry, the most water-hungry process is the thermoelectric-power industry, which uses plentiful amounts of water to cool electricity-generating equipment. Overall, electrical power production uses more water than any other single industrial process, according to IEEE Spectrum.

Textiles and Garments

The textile industry is one of the biggest creators of wastewater worldwide.  According to the U.S. EPA, it takes 2,900 gallons of water to produce a single pair of jeans. Most of this water is used in what’s known as “wet processing” as well as dyeing of fabric.

Meat Production

According to a study by the UNESCO Institute for Water Education, conducted between 1996 and 2005, “29 percent of the total water footprint of the agricultural sector in the world is related to the production of animal products.” One-third of that water is used to raise beef cattle.

Beverage Industry

Another heavy user of water is the beverage industry, which produces sodas, beers, juices and other drinks. Yet it isn’t necessarily the production and bottling processes that are to blame. Rather, it is the plants: the beverage industry requires farmed products such as sugar, barley, coffee, chocolate, lemons, vanilla and other plant-derived ingredients. All in all, it takes between 180 and 328 gallons of water to produce a 2-liter bottle of soda, 20 gallons of water to make a pint of beer and nearly 37 gallons of water to produce the ingredients to make a single cup of coffee, according to the Water Footprint Network.

Automotive Manufacturing

It takes about 39,000 gallons of water to produce the average domestic car, including the tires. Major water uses in the automotive manufacturing industry include surface treatment and coating, paint spray booths, washing/rinsing/hosing, cooling, air conditioning systems and boilers.

Water in Food Industry

It goes without saying that the corporate sector, in particular the food and beverages industry too can play a very important role in water cooperation.

Water is a critical resource for the F&B industries. It is used for numerous purposes, including chilling, heating, washing, rinsing, sanitizing, processing, and conveying. Large amounts of water are also incorporated directly into a wide range of products.

As noted by Grace Communications Foundation (www.gracelinks.org), which builds partnerships and develops innovative media strategies that increase public awareness of the relationships among food, water and energy systems, it takes a surprisingly large amount of water to make processed foods and beverages.

What we eat everyday – our diet – makes up 50 percent of our total water footprint, which includes the enormous volume of “virtual water” needed to produce our food.

“For instance, wheat requires 132 gallons of water per pound, and a pound of cheese takes about 600 gallons. Therefore, a cheese sandwich represents approximately 100 gallons of water (and that’s just for a couple of cheese slices). Throw in a bag of potato chips and it takes about 150 gallons of water to make your lunch! Thirsty? If you feel like rinsing it down with a cold glass of milk, add an extra 100 gallons of water onto your tab. The sheer amount of water used to make the food we eat every day can be mind-boggling.”

On average it takes about 108 gallons of water to produce one pound of corn. If that corn is then used as cattle feed, additional water is required for cleaning and processing. Factoring in feed and water, it can take around 1,800 gallons of water to produce a single pound of beef.

The major demands for water during food processing are:

• Washing / cleaning of (raw) products

• Transport of products

• Dissolving of ingredients

• Treatment of the product (e.g. alteration, separation)

• Provision of appropriate water content in the final product

• Cooling processes

• Steam generation

• Cleaning / rinsing of equipment

• Abnormal incidents (e.g. fire protection)

• Sanitation.

The problems caused by pressures on water supplies mean that the food industry is being forced to consider both more efficient uses of water and alternative sources of water. It is also necessary to minimize the use of water in both production and processing, and this will inevitably lead to reuse of water in both.

In food processing a broad range of possibilities exist with regard to water management, including increased efficiency of water use and the promotion of water reuse. The latter can be made more efficient by tailoring the water quality requirements to the particular process.

Water and Wastewater Usage

Traditionally, the food-processing industry has been a large water user. Water is used as an ingredient, an initial and intermediate cleaning source, an efficient transportation conveyor of raw materials, and the principal agent used in sanitizing plant machinery and areas. Although water use will always be a part of the food-processing industry, it has become the principal target for pollution prevention, source reduction practices.

In food processing plants, water is used for many purposes. Its use starts with conditioning raw materials, such as soaking, cleaning, blanching, and chilling. It continues with cooling, sanitizing, steam generation for sterilization, power and process heating, and finally, direct 'in-process' use. The water classification categories used in the food and beverage industries are: general purpose, process, cooling and boiler feed.

Sanitary conditions have always been a concern for food products created in the manufacturing process. Disinfection through chlorination has been the quickest means of disinfecting wastewater. Disinfection has come under criticism due to chlorination byproducts and toxicity concerns that residual chlorine pose to aquatic life. The two principal means of disinfecting wastewater without using chlorination are ozone disinfection or UV disinfection. Ozonation works on the same principle as chlorination but leaves no residual in the treated wastewater and does not produce the magnitude of disinfection byproducts that chlorination produces. UV disinfection is even more environmentally friendly than ozone but requires more space and cleaner wastewater to be effective. Both technologies require high capital and operating costs.

General Purpose Water

This water includes all water used in washing and sanitizing raw materials, processing equipment, plant facility and ancillary equipment. It is used in the largest amounts and it should be potable, clear, colorless, and free of contaminants that affect taste or odor. In-plant chlorination is usually the only treatment required.

The main advantage of in-plant chlorination of general-purpose water is the reduction of microbial number on raw materials, prepared products, and on equipment surfaces in the plant. There is no action as important to food and beverage processing as control of microorganisms.

Chlorinated water is often used for direct rinse of raw material or prepared products. When this is done, precautions must be taken to ensure that the flavor of the finished product has not been adversely affected

Process Water

Water used for cooking or added directly to the product must be potable and must be of sufficient quality not to degrade product quality. This includes being free of dissolved minerals that make water excessively hard or affect taste.

Most of the product in beverage production consists of process water, so treatment to achieve taste objectives is especially important. Often, treatment beyond that required to meet safe drinking water standards is essential for consistent high quality.

Treatment processes used in bottled water often include softening, reverse osmosis, and deionization. Many other beverages would require similar treatment.

Hard water contains minerals the can affect the texture of the raw materials to be processed, such as certain vegetables. Iron, manganese or sulfate can have an undesirable affect on the taste of the product.

Water softening might be required to prevent the formation of deposits on the surfaces of equipment, and canning and bottling materials. The type of food process determines specific quality requirements of the water beyond being potable.

Prior to its use in food processing, water must be microbiologically safe (free of bacteria, virus, protozoa cysts, and worms). Methods to remove suspended matter greatly reduce microorganisms, but terminal disinfection provides an essential added barrier.

The methods used for terminal disinfection include chemical, thermal, radiation, and ultrasonic treatment or cell disruption. Chemical treatment with chlorine or chlorine derivatives is the least expensive and most common process.

Cooling Water

Cooling water not in contact with food products or sealed containers does not have to be potable or meet the requirements of process water. The removal of staining minerals and odors is not as important. However, preventing the accumulation of scale in pipes and equipment is important, especially when cooling water is recycled.

The most efficient processing systems include recycling circuits to reduce cooling water waste, thus reducing processing costs. Potable water, even from public supplies, often has to receive additional treatment such as softening to avoid scale and deposits to be suitable for cooling.

Boiler Feed Water

Boiler feed water requires the removal of hardness. This may be the only treatment process applied to the water. If this water is not in contact with food, it does not have to be potable. Boiler feed water for high-pressure boilers requires the removal of all dissolved solids or demineralization. Almost all-potable water must have minerals removed through additional treatment to be suitable for boiler feed.

Not only can microorganisms produce color and odor in water, but also if they are introduced into the production process, they can contaminate the equipment and finished product. Process contamination could damage and spoil foodstuffs. If pathogenic bacteria are introduced in the contamination, food poisoning could occur.

When water is used as a food ingredient, its quality can affect the properties of the food, including texture, shelf stability, appearance, aroma and flavor.

As a processing aid, water may be used for conveying, heating, cooling, rinsing, dissolving, dispersing, blanketing, diluting, separating, steam generation and other activities. In each case, purity of the water will affect its performance. Cleaning activities in the food industry involve the use of water as a carrying agent, dispersant, solvent and diluent.

Water Sources

The two primary sources of fresh water are surface and ground water. Food processors generally obtain water from municipal sources or owned wells. Knowledge of the water source and how it was obtained will help to indicate any required in-house treatments. Surface waters are from rivers, lakes and reservoirs, and may have higher levels of suspended materials, turbidity, temperature fluctuations and mineral content. Ground water from springs and wells tends to be high in dissolved minerals, with a relatively constant temperature over time.

Water Quality

Impurity of water is identified and measured in three basic categories: qualitative, general quantitative and specific. Qualitative identification, includes turbidity, taste, color and odor, and describes obvious conditions of water. Most qualitative measures do not describe the concentration of the contamination and do not identify the source. It should be noted, however, that taste, color and odor evaluations may be very accurate qualitative measurements that can be rapidly completed.

Water scarcity is a key concern for the food and drink industry, as disruptions in operations due to water availability, increases in water expenses and other adverse water-related impacts would be detrimental to the industry’s competitiveness.

Water Usage

As Food Drink Europe’s  (www.fooddrinkeurope.eu/) Environmental Sustainability Vision towards 2030 points out, the food and drink industry has shown leadership in its voluntarily actions to reduce water use, as the quality and quantity of water available is critical for the sector’s sustainability. A certain amount of water use is unavoidable for the production of food and drink products and to ensure compliance with stringent EU hygiene requirements, as food safety and hygiene are of utmost importance.

“While the Europe’s food and drink industry already leads in the field and “water footprint” is minimal (1.8% of total private sector use), producers across the world have strived to further reduce their water use and better manage water resources from factory to final product. Leading companies are already reporting measurable achievements in improving water efficiency.

Actions include developing and using water consumption monitoring tools, rainwater harvesting, installing water recovery and recirculation systems, modifying cleaning and housekeeping practices, preventing and stopping water leakages, using sensor-controlled taps or hand-controlled triggers on hoses, using low volume high pressure water jets, redesigning processing techniques to reduce water use and staff training.”

A 2012 report from sustainable business analyst Verdantix, titled The State of Global Corporate Water Strategies, was compiled after interviewing senior executives in a number of $1 billion or greater firms from different sectors in 10 countries. Verdantix found that formal water strategies are becoming more common. In water-intensive industries, about 90 percent of businesses report having a formal water strategy. The numbers are lower in non-water-intensive industries, but are still substantial: about 60 percent. In water-intensive industries, about 93 percent of companies issue formal reports about their water usage and conservation practices, as do about 77 percent of companies in lower water-intensive industries.

Companies are realizing that as water becomes scarcer in places they manufacture, wasteful production methods present a danger to operations, particularly if local governments turn off the tap or put huge surcharges on water use. It’s in the businesses’ best interests to put some water conversation programs into place now and wean themselves off wasteful processes in favor of more water-conserving production methods.

To that end, according to the study, companies are using water metering and other technology solutions, such as water accounting; water-footprinting tools and product lifecycle assessment (LCA) software that helps them outline the environmental impact of their products and processes.

Suggestions for Improvement

The changing climate with more frequent extreme weather events requires today’s businesses to plan for an unpredictable and inconsistent water supply via more sophisticated water management practices, according to a new report released on April 15^th, by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD).

The report, Sharing Water: Engaging Business emphasizes the crucial role of business in ensuring responsible management of water resources and encourages greater collaboration across sectors. The report finds that leading companies have begun shifting their perspective beyond merely managing operational water use to becoming more conscious of how corporate actions impact local and regional water resources and, conversely, how water resources and watersheds impact business.

“Increasing global demand and the impacts of climate change are placing unprecedented strain on freshwater resources,” said WBCSD President Peter Bakker. “In order to ensure a viable business future, companies are calling for collective management and collaboration at the watershed level to ensure continued access to water supplies among competing demands.”

Water conservation groups say there is room in every step of the manufacturing process for improvement, whether by changing or modifying machinery to use less water, switching to waterless processes, or treating and reusing water. It’s a daunting prospect, and should begin with a comprehensive review and planning strategy.

Keep track of water usage. Many manufacturers today don’t track their water consumption, which should be the first step of reducing its use. Companies can begin by implementing a water auditing system that reviews the life cycle of water in the plant from intake to discharge. An audit should track primary uses, and also secondary uses, such as wash water, irrigation water for landscaping, and water used in restroom facilities. It should include where the water is used, what quality it needs to be, and where savings opportunities might exist. This can be accomplished by sub-metering of water, or breaking out each water-using process and measuring precisely how much is used.

Build a water management strategy. Once a company knows how much water it uses, it can begin to set specific targets for reduction and plan how to achieve them. This strategy should be reviewed at least once a year to ensure that it accommodates changing business needs.

Determine the areas where wastewater can be recaptured and reused. Chances are, not every water-based process requires fresh water: so-called “gray water” will do just as well for the purposes of cooling, rinsing, boiling, or flushing. There are benefits to such a switch beyond cutting water use. By reducing water discharge, companies may be able to minimize regulatory and discharge fees.

Recover waste heat instead of dousing it with water. One of the most common uses of water in manufacturing is for cooling hot machinery. Conversely, one of the easiest ways to reduce energy consumption is to recover waste heat and use it to heat the facility. Moving to a waste heat capture (or “cogeneration”) system can reduce both water usage and energy costs.

Invest in on-site water treatment. Rather than discharging used water and pulling fresh water from municipal systems, many companies have turned to treating wastewater on site to prepare it for re-use, in some cases using relatively inexpensive carbon filtration.

Recover water from steam boilers. Another common use of water in manufacturing is for boilers to generate steam. There is great potential for water loss here as the water turns to vapor and escapes the system. Many eco-minded companies are recapturing steam in heat exchangers designed to collect the condensate and return the water to the boiler.

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